Batavian modifications of imperial Roman helmets by Peronis
  

There have been many basic generic Roman and Germanic military finds such as spear heads and shield components finds from the Lower Rhine delta, but very few items can be clearly identified as being of Batavian origin or ownership. The exceptions being the rather nice distinctive Batavian pattern la Tène swords and belt hooks from the Kessel/Lith area of the tribal homelands, However, there have been six archaeological finds of Roman helmets, three infantry and three cavalry helmets which have been modified an certain ways which suggest that their owners were not of Roman origin. I will discuss the infantry helmets first followed by the cavalry helmet modifications.

Infantry Helmets

The three infantry helmets of the 'Gallic' style, in a cut down version, with the cheek guards and neck guard removed that have been linked to Batavian usage. One was found at the Kessel/Lith site, another at the Kops plateau, Nijmegen (Noviomagus) and one just across the border at Gelduba, modern Krefeld, Germany. Starting with the oldest first let us examine the evidence for possible Batavian ownership and modification of these helmets.

1. The Kessel/Lith helmet.

The first and oldest of the three helmets is from the Kessel/Lith area of the Batavian insula. The small villages of Kessel and Lith are situated on the southern banks of the Rhine/Meuse delta. The helmet was found during extraction of gravel and sand as part of dredging operations in the area. It was discovered by workmen cleaning the suction pipe and filters of their machinery.

The helmet is made of iron and dated to the late first century BC to early first century AD. In style is very similar to the two later helmets in that it has had its neck guard and cheek guards removed. It does however differ in that it is not a Weisenau type helmet. (The Weisenau/imperial Gallic was still un-developed, or at most, in its early stages). It is more akin to the Port bei Nidau type B, which, as this example had, has a riveted-on occipital ridging and short neck guard separate from the bowl. Two complete examples exist; one can be seen in the museum at Mainz Germany, the other at Rouen France. There are no ear recesses.

Another distinctive feature of this find is the use of not only eyebrow decoration, but also (below the eyebrows) the eyes themselves, raised from the bowl in the same fashion, somewhat reminiscent of the late-Roman 'Intercisa' helmets. No traces of organic matter were found with this example. It is also the oldest helmet ever found in the lower Rhineland. (Fig. 1).

The lack of cheek guards and occipital area strongly suggests that they were purposefully removed by the owner.
 
Fig. 1a. Iron helmet from Kessel/Lith
 

Fig. 1b. Iron helmet from Kessel/Lith

Fig. 1c. author's reconstructiom
    
 

 



2. The Nijmegen Kops plateau helmet.

This helmet is dated to a slightly later, Augustan/Tiberian period of use. Though this helmet from the Nijmegen Kops plateau is at least half a century older in date, it strongly resembles the third helmet example (which will be discussed later) from Gelduba. Any decorative organic covering or decoration however has not been preserved or was lacking.

The suggestion has been made that the helmet from the Kops plateau also belonged to a Batavian who would have been stationed at the Nijmegen base around 10-20AD. He may have even been part of the Batavian auxiliaries participating in the 16AD expedition of Germanicus in German territory on the other side of the Rhine.

(The Batavian infantry and cavalry troops were led by their native chieftain Chariovalda during this campaign - Tacitus: Annals 10:11)

The iron helmet bowl is of the Weisenau/Imperial Gallic 'A' type with single embossed 'eyebrows' and has had its neck guard crudely chiselled off and cheek guards removed by its user. The recess for the ear is clearly visible. It has a very distinctive highly decorated brow guard with contrasting wire inlays on the front edge and has an applied copper alloy roped edge to the bowl. The same rope decoration can be seen on the Imperial Gallic 'A' find from Eich, Germany. A decorative rivet which appears to serve no practical purpose can be seen above the eyebrows. (Fig.2).

 

 
 
Fig. 2. Nijmegen Kops plateau helmet
 
1. Krefeld/Gelduba.

The circumstantial evidence of the Krefeld find points to the loss of this helmet in 69AD during the Batavian revolt, during an attack by the forces of the Batavian commander Julius Civilis on the troops under the Roman commanders Caius Didius Vocula and Marcus Hordionius Flaccus. (Tacitus histories 4:32,33)

Thanks to remarkably good conservation, some organic remains were also preserved. It appears that the surface of the bowl was covered with a fur-like material (marten). The rim was edged with a leather strip approximately 30mm in width, which was wired or stitched to the bowl. Beneath this leather-strip at the forehead/brow portion of the helmet, four tube-like remains of feather quills were preserved. The find spot, the shape and unique decoration support make it seem likely that the user was not a Roman by origin. It is plausible that this was a helmet belonging to a soldier from one of the Batavian auxiliary regiments involved in the battle, described by Tacitus at Gelduba.
 


Fig. 3. Krefeld/Gelduba helmet
 
Whilst still being recognizable as an ordinary infantry helmet of the Weisenau/Imperial Gallic C or F type, some very exceptional modifications were made to this piece: It is completely lacking of all mounted fittings and parts such ornamental rivets/bosses, brow guard, and cheek guards etc. Only the remains of the rivets serving to attach the brow guard and cheek guards are visible. The latter may have been used for the attachment of a chin-strap. The neck guard was again also cut or chiselled off.
(Figs. 3 and 4).
 
Fig. 4. Krefeld/Gelduba helmet
  The remains of feathers at the front of the helmet are reminiscent of a similar decoration worn by two soldiers depicted on the arch of Constantine, which have been identified as tribesmen of the Cornuti, a regiment that was also originally recruited along the Rhine frontier. (Fig.5).
 
Fig. 5. 'Cornuti' soldiers - Arch of Constantine, Rome
  An exact reconstruction of the undoubtedly highly exotic appearance of the Krefeld helmet is not possible, but an educated attempt at what it may have looked like can be made. The helmet must have had a nearly cap-like look when it was deposited. This is the authors attempt at a reconstruction of the helmet in all its former glory. (Fig. 6). No doubt the Batavi would sometimes modify their equipment to suit their own native tastes and needs, or indeed their vanity.
 
 
Fig. 6. Author's reconstruction
  Although few in number, these helmet finds do present a great deal of similarities, notably the removal of the cheek guards, neck guard and applied decoration. The context of the finds also gives an indication that it was possible for all three of the helmets to have been owned by Batavian soldiers from the first three quarters of the first century AD. Certainly the finds from Kessel/Lith show that the Batavians were making offerings of weapons and equipment in watery depositions from the pre-Augustan period through to the late third century AD. Depictions of regular auxiliary soldiers (not standard bearers) wearing animal skins over their helmets can be seen on Trajan's Column at Rome.

A parallel of the modifications concerning the infantry helmets can also be seen on three examples of auxiliary cavalry helmets which correspond to the first century cavalry helmets of the 'Weiler' or 'Koblenz-Bubbenheim' types. These three helmet examples, with bowls that have at one time been covered with organic material (hair or fur) are all from the Rhine area, present at Nijmegen, The Netherlands (Two examples) and Xanten, near Wesel, Germany.


4. The Nijmegen helmet.(1)

The first example photographed in Fig. 7. and reconstructed in Fig 8. is one of two similar cavalry helmets finds from Nijmegen. (Classified by H. R. Robinson as 'cavalry sports type D'). This example is made of iron and was a surface-find discovered on the Kops plateau, Amersfoort. It is displayed at the Museum het Valkhof - Nijmegen.

The remaining fur/hair covering can still be seen stuck to the bowl of the original helmet. The remains of a 'hairnet' were also present. A reconstruction of this type of headgear can be seen in Fig. 8.
 
 
Fig. 7. Cavalry Sports type D from Nijmegen (1) - Amersfoort.
 
 
Fig. 8. Reconstruction.
  
  5. The Nijmegen helmet (2)

The second example from Nijmegen can be seen in Fig. 9. It too shows a preserved covering of fur/hair. If observed closely, the remains of its woven 'hairnet' can be seen at the uppermost portion of the crown of the helmet bowl. The find-spot of this helmet is unknown.

 
 
Fig. 9. Cavalry sports type D from Nijmegen (2) - Museum het Valkhof .
  6. The Xanten helmet.

The third example pictured in Fig. 10. is from the Xanten-Wardt, Germany. It is again, of 'cavalry sports type D' classification. Construct with a core of Iron, with silver-plating over embossed copper sheathing. The ear protectors are riveted in place with three rivets. The hair/fur covering has been applied over the same area that embossing is usually seen on this helmet type. Again, the remains of its woven 'hairnet' can be seen at the uppermost portion of the crown of the helmet bowl.
 
 
Fig. 10. Cavalry sports type D (Xanten Museum)
  In all three examples it is noticeable that the core/bowl of each helmet is plain and undecorated. There has been no attempt to create the embossed/repoussé hair effect seen on many other cavalry helmets of this type. (Figs.11 and 12). It is therefore possible that the owners of the helmets followed this fashion in their own way by adding real hair to the otherwise plain helmets. It could also have been a superstitious or religious reason as to why these particular helmets were decorated in such a fashion.
 
  Fig. 11. (from Bulgaria) Fig. 12. (from Xanten)
  Due to the fact that all of the mentioned parallels originate from the north of the 'Niedergermanien' province and also from find locations to which a reference to Batavian units is either substantiated, or at least is to be considered1, we may suppose that these examples of cavalry helmets may well have been items of equipment belonging to Batavian soldiers which were either deposited, or lost in fighting around the forts.2 These finds, when compared to and assessed alongside the infantry examples clearly show that the modification of all of these examples was certainly not typically 'Roman' in style and indeed all of these examples might well have belonged to Batavian soldiers.

1 Xanten was a fighting location of the 69AD uprising and Nijmegen was a probable deployment location of
Ala Batavorum.

2 Tacitus' concise and plausible account of the siege at Xanten (Vetera) by Julius Civilis at the end of
September 69. Tacitus 'The Histories' book IV.

 

Bibliography:

Tacitus - "The Histories" (book IV) Penguin edition.

H. Russell Robinson - "The Armour of imperial Rome"' - Lionel Leventhal publishers Ltd 1975

Herman Born and Marcus Junkelmann - Römische kampf - und Turnierrüstungen. Sammlung Axel Guttmann VI. (Roman battle and tournament helmets - Axel Guttmann collection). Mainz 1997.
Schalles, H.J., "Frühkaiserzeitliche Militaria aus einem Altrheinarm bei Xanten-Wardt", J.R.M.E.S., 5, 155-65 (1994),
'Carnuntum Jahrbuch' 2005, pp 122-123, written and illustrated by Robert Fahr.
(Romischen Forschungen in Niederosterreich). Passages relating to the Krefeld finds kindly translated by Heiko Olszewski.

'Ethnic identity and imperial power' - Batavians in the early Roman Empire - Nico Roymans. - Amsterdam University Press,Netherlands 2005.


Illustrations & Photographs ;

Fig. 1 - From 'Ethnic identity and imperial power' - Batavians in the early Roman Empire - Nico Roymans. 2005
Figs. 2, 4, 7, and 10(a) kindly supplied by Jasper Oorthuys.
Fig. 3 Kindly supplied by Robert Fahr.
Figs. 5, 6, 11 and 12 - Authors collection.
Figs 7 and 10(b) kindly supplied by Mark Martin.
 
©RMRS 2006